Note:
This article is part of my published journal paper in Journal of Politics and Law; (2008); Vol. 1(1): 25 – 39; entitle “Ad
baculum, Islamic state and Malaysian Chinese politics: A rhetorical study of
selected Political advertisements in the local Chinese media during the 11th
Malaysian general election campaign”
Abstract
This
study analyzes the rhetorical strategy of using the emotion of fear as a
political tool in the 11th Malaysia General Election campaign. The
three-prong objectives of this study are to analyze the main themes and issues
used to address this tactic of fear, the general perceptions that non-Moslems
in Malaysia have of the concept of Islamic state as a symbol of fear and
rhetorical strategies used to provoke this fear. The scope of the study is
confined to the conventional communication model of
“Source-Message-Channel-Receiver”. The “sources” are political advertisements,
the “messages” are Islamic state theme and related issues, the “channels” are
symbols or rhetorical strategies and the “receivers” are the voters, with
special reference to Malaysian Chinese voters. The findings concluded that the
National Front party (Barisan National,
BN) used the fear factor effectively in its campaign. This situation is further enhanced by the
strong control of BN over the Malaysian media in addition to the character of
Chinese voters who generally prefer not to leave their current comfort zone and
are afraid of an Islamic state.
Intro
Bentham
was perhaps the first to relate fallacies to politics as can be seen in The Book of Fallacies; from unfinished
papers of Jeremy Bentham (By a friend. London: J. and H. L. Hunt, 1824). The Bentham’s Handbook of Political Fallacies
was later revised, edited and a Preface by Harold A. Larrabee was added before
it was published in 1952 (Baltimore:
The Johns Hopkins Press). However, the concept of fallacies discussed in that
particular text is not exactly the same as the concept of what informal
logicians means. In the context of informal logic, Ralph H. Johnson was the
first proponent who discussed the relationship between informal logic and
politics. In his paper presented at the Conference on Logic and Politics in Amsterdam, February
19-22, 1990, Johnson discusses the role of informal logic in the analysis of
political discourse and some dangers we encounter in applying this logic to
politics and its possible remedies. Among the popular fallacies commonly used
in politic is ad baculum, the fallacy of appeal to fear. Fear is a
classic political weapon, used throughout the ages. Its mechanism is simple,
making the people afraid and telling them that you are the one who can save
them.
This
paper will try to analyze one of the political discourses, that is political
advertisements and how these advertisements were used as a rhetorical strategy
for causing fear. Thus, a few objectives below will be analyzed:
1) What are
the kinds of main themes and issues used to address this tactic of fear?
2) What are
the kinds of fear or general perceptions that the non-Moslems in Malaysia have
of the concept of Islamic state as a symbol of fear?
3) What are
the kinds of rhetorical strategies used to provoke this fear?
Meanwhile,
the scope of this study focuses on the three above-mentioned objectives and
uses the conventional communication model of “Source-Message-Channel-Receiver”.
The source of study is the main political parties’ political advertisements in
the local Malaysian main Chinese media.
Rhetoric, Ad Baculum and Fear
Aristotle
in his Treatise on Rhetoric (translated by Theodore Buckley, 1995: 11
& 24), defined rhetoric as a faculty that considers all possible means of
persuasion on every subject. Today’s definition of rhetoric has become much
more complex due to its more than 2,500 years of history and evolution. Its
definition has expanded from Greek classic formal oratory to include all types
of literature or non-literature, oral or written discourse and even visual.
Thus, rhetoric includes non-discursive or nonverbal symbols as well as
discursive or verbal ones. Speeches, essays, conversations, poetries, novels,
stories, comic books, television programs, films, art, architecture, plays,
music, dances, advertisements, furniture, automobiles, and dresses are all
forms of rhetoric (Foss, 2004: 5).
The
fallacy that appeals to fear is an argument that uses threat of harm to advance
one’s conclusion. This fallacy according to Engel (1986: 220) is also known as
“swinging the big stick”, as the Latin word for stick or staff is baculum, and this argument is known in
Latin as argumentum ad baculum.
Quoted
from Aristotle’s Treatise on Rhetoric (translated by Buckley, 1995: 121
– 127), fear can be defined as a sort of pain or agitation, arising out of an
idea that is evil, capable either of destroying or giving pain. However, people
only fear those whose effect is either a considerable degree of pain or
destruction and these (pain or destruction) are not far removed, but give one
the idea of being close at hand, so as to be on the eve of happening. Generally
human are emotional beings, thus are subjected to fear. No matter how the
rational mind tells us that there is nothing to fear about, the feeling of fear
still exists naturally especially if the event of fear seems close by.
An
example of ad baculum tactic is El Salvador
guerrilla’s slogan: “Vote in the morning; die in the afternoon” (Harris, 2000).
The Nazis had also used the tactic of ad baculum. According to
Grunberger (1971), the Nazis used to send the following notice to German
readers who let their subscriptions lapse: "Our paper certainly deserves
the support of every German. We shall continue to forward copies of it to you,
and hope that you will not want to expose yourself to unfortunate consequences
in the case of cancellation."
Dhammananda
(2003: 9, 10 & 11) explained that fear is an intense emotional reaction
characterized by attempts to flee from the situation, imprison and ensnare the
mind and flourishes in the fog of ignorance. Therefore, presenting issues of
fear to voters and presenting self as the sole savior at the same time might
just easily make the voter flee from the fear elements without rightful
rationalization and then, leave them no choice but to pledge their vote to the
only “savior” party available. Otherwise, there will be unfavorable or negative
consequences.
Closely
linked to ad baculum strategy is ‘transference’, which is also known as
fallacy of association. It is used to associate the argument with something
attractive or unattractive depending of the purpose. Thus, by using
transference, one could bring the effect of ad baculum to any other
party through associating it with the original feared party.
Islamic State
The
concept of Islamic state seems to be rather vague, as it was not properly
defined in Koran. As such, the
vagueness of the term had invited various interpretations. In the Malaysian
political context, the interpretation has indeed attracted the interests of two
main political parties of the Moslems, namely United Malays National
Organization (UMNO) and Party Islam Semalaysia (PAS).
According
to the Islamic Development Department of Malaysia (Jabatan Kemajuan Islam
Malaysia or Jakim), the term “Islamic state” is indeed not stated at all in
the Koran or al-Sunnah (Jakim, 2004). The same conclusion is also mentioned by
Asghar (n.d). Thus, the definition of “Islamic state” depends on each
individual, researcher or ulama (Moslem scholars recognized of having
specialized knowledge of Islamic sacred law and theology).
Main Theme and Issues Used to Address
This Tactic of Fear
Barisan
Nasional instilled fear that allowing the opposition (especially PAS) to win
will brings changes which are presented as a treat or risk too high for the
voters to take. The “changes” are particularly referred to the setting up of
Islamic state that is what PAS is campaigning for while the Islamic state idea
is packaged to look as a symbol of fear especially to the Chinese community.
The cost of change for the voters will be the “comfort zone” they are currently
enjoying during the era of the ruling of the Barisan Nasional. Briefly, the
comfort zones elements compared to the threats are as below:
1) “Peace”
versus “Chaos”: (Issue 1)
Related
issues include moderate government based on a mix of secular and Islamic
concept versus an Islam fanatic opposition. This particularly refers to PAS and
its determination to establish an Islamic state. Leaders of Barisan Nasional
are portrayed as loving, family oriented persons while having harmonious living
among multi ethnics. The opposition party, especially PAS is shown as related
to terrorism and not friendly to non-Islam.
2) “Freedom”
versus “Restrictions”: (Issue 2)
Related
issues include freedom to practice religion, celebrate festivals, permission to
sell-buy selected non-halal products
(in particular alcohol and pork), permission for various entertainment
businesses including betting, concerts, discos and karaoke lounges and freedom
plus equal rights for women groups. These are contradictory to the practice of
pure Islamic law, which prohibits most of the mentioned items while maintains
inferior status of women compared to that of men.
3) “Development”
versus “Backwardness”: (Issue 3)
Related
issues include presenting the good track record of economic and social
developments compared to both the poor development of PAS ruling state
(Kelantan and Terengganu) and the inexperience of the opposition parties to
develop the nation. Further strengthening this aspect is the portraying of
Abdullah Badawi, the top leader of Barisan Nasional as the Chinese legendary
character, Justice Pau who is famous for his justice and anti-corruption
stand.
4) “BN”
versus “PAS–DAP-PK”: (Issue 4)
There is also an issue of transference in which DAP and PK are said to
be associated with PAS, including helping PAS to minimize BN political strength
to the benefit of PAS. DAP, PAS and PK formed the Barisan Alternatif
(Alternative Front) to ensure a one-to-one fight with BN during the previous 10th
General Election. That has become an issue of transference. Thus, fear issues
associated to PAS were “associated” with DAP and PK also.
Kinds of Fear about the Concept of
Islamic State
The
kinds of fear or general perceptions that the non-Moslems in Malaysia have
of the concept of Islamic state as a symbol of fear can be categorized according to issues as below. This is refers to the
Chinese fear of PAS setting up an Islamic state for Malaysia.
1) “Peace”
verses “Chaos”
a. Terrorism activities could emerge in Malaysia or the new government
could support global terrorism activities prompting hostility from other
countries;
b. Aggression towards non-Moslem ethnics similar to the situation in Indonesia
might happen;
c. Forcing non-Moslems to adopt Islamic elements.
2) “Freedom”
verses “Restrictions”
a. Restriction to practice religion;
b. Restriction to celebrate festivals;
c. Banning pigs rearing;
d. Banning selling-buying of non-halal (Note 3) products (in particular
alcohol and pork);
e. Banning betting and gambling activities;
f. Restrictions to stage concerts and the establishment
of discos and karaoke lounge;
g. Inferior treatment of women.
3) “Development”
verses “Backwardness”
a. Economics mismanagement causing various social
hardship;
b. International boycott or avoidance in terms of foreign
direct investment and international trade that might affect the economics
negatively;
Analysis: Some
Strategies of Fear as Seen from the Local Media
To be continue in Part II.
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